(b. c. 1525， Palestrina， near Rome--d. Feb. 2， 1594， Rome)，
Italian Renaissance composer of more than 105 masses and 250
motets， a master of contrapuntal composition.
Palestrina lived during the period of the Catholic
Counter-Reformation and was a primary representative of the
16th-century conservative approach to church music.
Life
Palestrina was born in a small town where his ancestors are
thought to have lived for generations， but as a child he was taken
to nearby Rome. In 1537 he was one of the choirboys at the
basilica of Sta. Maria Maggiore， where he also studied music
between 1537 and 1539. In 1544 Palestrina was engaged as organist
and singer in the cathedral of his native town. His duties
included playing the organ， helping with the choir， and teaching
music. His pay was that of a canon and would have been received in
money and kind. His prowess at the church there attracted the
attention of the bishop， Giovanni Maria Ciocchi del Monte， who
later became Pope Julius III. (see also Index: Santa Maria
Maggiore)
In 1547 Palestrina married Lucrezia Gori. Three sons were born to
them: Rodolfo， Angelo， and Iginio. Only the last outlived his
father. In 1551 Palestrina returned to Rome， where he assumed the
first of his papal appointments， as musical director of the Julian
Chapel choir， and thus was responsible for the music in St.
Peter's. Before he was 30 he published his first book of masses
(1554)， dedicated to Julius III， and the following year he was
promoted to singer in the Pontifical Choir. About this time he
became composer to the papal chapel. Palestrina repaid the Pope's
patronage by composing a mass in his honour. Yet he did not
neglect the secular side of his art， for his first book of
madrigals (secular and spiritual part-songs) appeared in 1555，
unfortunately at a time when the lenient regime of Julius III had
given way to the sterner discipline of Paul IV. A decree of the
new pope forbade married men to serve in the papal choir， and
Palestrina， together with two of his colleagues， received a small
pension by way of compensation for their dismissal. (see also
Index: Saint Peter's Basilica)
For the next five years Palestrina directed the choir of St. John
Lateran， but his efforts were continually thwarted by singers
whose quality was almost as limited as their number， which was
restricted because very little money was available for music.
Nevertheless， he gained admission for his eldest son， Rodolfo，
then about 13， as a chorister. Eventually he broke away from this
uncongenial milieu. The chapter archives of St. John Lateran
record that in July 1560 he and his son suddenly departed.
A year passed before Palestrina found employment. In March 1561 he
accepted a new post at Sta. Maria Maggiore. This post was more
congenial to him and he remained at it for about seven years. At
the invitation of Cardinal Ippolito d'Este he then took charge of
the music at the Villa d'Este in Tivoli， a popular summer resort
near Rome. He was in the Cardinal's service for four years， at
which time he also worked as music master for a newly formed
Seminarium Romanum (Roman Seminary)， where his sons Rodolfo and
Angelo became students.
Palestrina received an offer in 1568 to become musical director at
the court of the emperor Maximilian II in Vienna. He refused the
position because of the low salary and a disinclination to leave
Rome. Palestrina's terms were also too high when he was invited to
the court at Mantua in 1583. The composer and the duke of Mantua，
Guglielmo Gonzaga， an amateur musician of some pretensions， did
become friends， however， and Palestrina was commissioned to write
special compositions for the ducal chapel of Sta. Barbara.
With the death in 1571 of the composer Giovanni Animuccia， musical
director at the Vatican since 1555， there was a chance for
Palestrina to return to his old post as musical director of the
Julian choir. The chapter， eager to have him back， increased the
salary， and he forthwith returned to St. Peter's. When his growing
fame as a composer prompted Sta. Maria Maggiore to rehire him， St.
Peter's again raised his salary. In acknowledgment of his position
as the most celebrated Roman musician， he was given in 1578 the
title of master of music at the Vatican Basilica.
The series of epidemics that swept through central Italy in the
late 1570s carried off his wife and his two elder sons， both of
whom showed great musical promise. He himself fell seriously ill.
Grieving over his wife's death， he announced his intention of
becoming a priest， to the delight of the pope， Gregory XIII. After
having been made a canon， however， he renounced his vows in order
to marry (1581) Virginia Dormoli， widow of a wealthy merchant.
Although he spent considerable time administering her fortune， he
retained his position at St. Peter's and continued to compose.
Although an attempt in 1585 to make Palestrina musical director of
the Pontifical Choir proved abortive， he was considered by all the
popes under whom he served as the official composer for the choir，
and it is recorded that he marched at the head of the pontifical
singers on the occasion of erecting the great Egyptian obelisk in
the piazza of St. Peter's.
Pope Gregory XIII had commissioned Palestrina and Annibale Zoilo
to restore the plainchant， or plainsong (a traditional liturgical
chant sung in unison)， then in use to a more authentic form. The
task proved too great， and Palestrina's editorial work gave way to
a flow of creative music. Much of it was published during the last
12 years of his life， including volumes of motets (choral
compositions based on sacred texts)， masses， and madrigals. He
also helped to found an association of professional musicians
called the Vertuosa Compagnia dei Musici.
Two years before Palestrina's death， the new pope， Clement VIII，
increased his pension， and the same year， in a singular mark of
respect and admiration， fellow composers paid their elderly senior
the compliment of writing 16 settings of the Vesper Psalms to his
praise. In return， Palestrina sent them a motet on the appropriate
text: Vos amici mei estis "You are my friends， if you do what I
teach， said the Lord."
Music
Palestrina's musical output， though vast， maintained a remarkably
high standard in both sacred and secular works. His 105 masses
embrace many different styles， and the number of voices used
ranges from four to eight. The time-honoured technique of using a
cantus firmus (preexistent melody used in one voice part) as the
tenor is found in such masses as Ecce sacerdos magnus； L'Homme
arme； Ut， re， mi， fa， sol， la； Ave Maria； Tu es Petrus； and Veni
Creator Spiritus. These titles refer to the source of the
particular cantus firmus. Palestrina's mastery of contrapuntal
ingenuity may be appreciated to the fullest extent in some of his
canonic masses (in which one or more voice parts are derived from
another voice part). His ability to ornament and decorate a solemn
plainchant， making it an integral part of the texture and
sometimes almost indistinguishable from the other， freely composed
parts， is evident from some of his masses based on hymn melodies.
(see also Index: "Homme arme， L' "， counterpoint)
By far the greatest number of masses employ what has come to be
known as the parody technique， by which a composer made use either
of his own music or that of others as a starting point for the new
composition. Many other masses derive from musical ideas by
Palestrina's predecessors or contemporaries. Yet another type of
mass is demonstrated by the nine works written for Mantua； in
these the Gloria and Credo sections are so arranged that plainsong
and polyphony alternate throughout. Finally， there is a small but
important group of masses that are in free style， the musical
material being entirely original. Perhaps the best known example
is the Missa brevis for four voices.
Palestrina's motets， of which more than 250 are extant， display
almost as much variety of form and type as do his masses. Most of
them are in some clearly defined form， occasionally reflecting the
shape of the liturgical text， though comparatively few are based
on plainsong. Many of them paraphrase the chant， however， with an
artistry that is every bit as successful as that of the masses. On
the same level as the canonic masses are such motets as Cum ortus
fuerit and Accepit Jesus calicem， the latter apparently a
favourite of the composer's--an assumption justified because he is
depicted holding a copy of it in a portrait now in the Vatican.
His 29 motets based on texts from the Song of Solomon afford
numerous examples of "madrigalisms": the use of suggestive musical
phrases evoking picturesque features， apparent either to the ear
or to the eye， sometimes to both. In the offertories， Palestrina
completely abandons the old cantus firmus technique and writes
music in free style， whereas in the hymns he paraphrases the
traditional melody， usually in the highest voice. In the
Lamentations of Jeremiah he brings effective contrast to bear on
the sections with Hebrew and Latin text， the former being
melismatic (floridly vocalized) in style and the latter simpler
and more solemn. His Magnificats are mainly in four sets of eight，
each set comprising a Magnificat on one of the eight "tones":
alternatim structure is used here as in the Mantua masses.
Although Palestrina's madrigals are generally considered of less
interest than his sacred music， they show as keen a sense for
pictorial and pastoral elements as one finds in any of his
contemporaries. Over and above this， he is to be remembered for
his early exploitation of the narrative sonnet in madrigal form，
notably in Vestiva i colli， which was frequently reprinted and
imitated. His settings of Petrarch's poems also are of an
exceptionally high order.
At the end of the 19th century the view that Palestrina
represented the loftiest peak of Italian polyphony was in some
ways detrimental to his reputation， for it cast his music into
rigid preconceptions. Even more unfortunate was the insistence on
"counterpoint in the style of Palestrina" in the examination
requirements of academies and universities， for such requirements
stultified a style that Palestrina had used with great
flexibility. Generations of fledgling composers were taught to
revere the music of Palestrina as a symbol of all that was pure in
ecclesiastical counterpoint. Indeed， the greater part of his
musical output， and in particular his masses (where his unerring
sense of tonal architecture may be heard at its best)， still
remains worthy of admiration.
Palestrina， unlike Johann Sebastian Bach， did not have to be
rediscovered in the 19th century， though the dissemination of his
achievement was helped by the interest of Romantic composers.
There always was a Palestrinian tradition， mainly because his
music supplied the need for a well-regulated formal system to be
used by the embryonic composer in presenting himself to the
musical world. Strict counterpoint was associated with a technique
acquired in this way. In his day， Palestrina was a senior figure
who， utilizing the dominant style of his time， created works
notable for their spiritual qualities and technical mastery.
(D.W.S.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
Henry Coates， Palestrina (1938， reprinted 1979)， is the standard
English-language study of the life and works of Palestrina and
contains a complete list of works. Jerome Roche， Palestrina
(1971)， is a brief， up-to-date biography useful for new details
about Palestrina's life. Zoe Kendrick Pyne， Giovanni Pierluigi da
Palestrina (1922， reprinted 1970)， in English； and Ethel King，
Palestrina， the Prince of Music (1965)， are also useful. Knud
Jeppesen， The Style of Palestrina and the Dissonance， 2nd ed.
(1946， reissued 1970)， is a specialized but thoroughgoing study of
the technical aspects of the composer's contrapuntal style.
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RE: 可以介绍一下Palestrina吗？
Giovanni da Palestrina
(b. c. 1525， Palestrina， near Rome--d. Feb. 2， 1594， Rome)，
Italian Renaissance composer of more than 105 masses and 250
motets， a master of contrapuntal composition.
Palestrina lived during the period of the Catholic
Counter-Reformation and was a primary representative of the
16th-century conservative approach to church music.
Life
Palestrina was born in a small town where his ancestors are
thought to have lived for generations， but as a child he was taken
to nearby Rome. In 1537 he was one of the choirboys at the
basilica of Sta. Maria Maggiore， where he also studied music
between 1537 and 1539. In 1544 Palestrina was engaged as organist
and singer in the cathedral of his native town. His duties
included playing the organ， helping with the choir， and teaching
music. His pay was that of a canon and would have been received in
money and kind. His prowess at the church there attracted the
attention of the bishop， Giovanni Maria Ciocchi del Monte， who
later became Pope Julius III. (see also Index: Santa Maria
Maggiore)
In 1547 Palestrina married Lucrezia Gori. Three sons were born to
them: Rodolfo， Angelo， and Iginio. Only the last outlived his
father. In 1551 Palestrina returned to Rome， where he assumed the
first of his papal appointments， as musical director of the Julian
Chapel choir， and thus was responsible for the music in St.
Peter's. Before he was 30 he published his first book of masses
(1554)， dedicated to Julius III， and the following year he was
promoted to singer in the Pontifical Choir. About this time he
became composer to the papal chapel. Palestrina repaid the Pope's
patronage by composing a mass in his honour. Yet he did not
neglect the secular side of his art， for his first book of
madrigals (secular and spiritual part-songs) appeared in 1555，
unfortunately at a time when the lenient regime of Julius III had
given way to the sterner discipline of Paul IV. A decree of the
new pope forbade married men to serve in the papal choir， and
Palestrina， together with two of his colleagues， received a small
pension by way of compensation for their dismissal. (see also
Index: Saint Peter's Basilica)
For the next five years Palestrina directed the choir of St. John
Lateran， but his efforts were continually thwarted by singers
whose quality was almost as limited as their number， which was
restricted because very little money was available for music.
Nevertheless， he gained admission for his eldest son， Rodolfo，
then about 13， as a chorister. Eventually he broke away from this
uncongenial milieu. The chapter archives of St. John Lateran
record that in July 1560 he and his son suddenly departed.
A year passed before Palestrina found employment. In March 1561 he
accepted a new post at Sta. Maria Maggiore. This post was more
congenial to him and he remained at it for about seven years. At
the invitation of Cardinal Ippolito d'Este he then took charge of
the music at the Villa d'Este in Tivoli， a popular summer resort
near Rome. He was in the Cardinal's service for four years， at
which time he also worked as music master for a newly formed
Seminarium Romanum (Roman Seminary)， where his sons Rodolfo and
Angelo became students.
Palestrina received an offer in 1568 to become musical director at
the court of the emperor Maximilian II in Vienna. He refused the
position because of the low salary and a disinclination to leave
Rome. Palestrina's terms were also too high when he was invited to
the court at Mantua in 1583. The composer and the duke of Mantua，
Guglielmo Gonzaga， an amateur musician of some pretensions， did
become friends， however， and Palestrina was commissioned to write
special compositions for the ducal chapel of Sta. Barbara.
With the death in 1571 of the composer Giovanni Animuccia， musical
director at the Vatican since 1555， there was a chance for
Palestrina to return to his old post as musical director of the
Julian choir. The chapter， eager to have him back， increased the
salary， and he forthwith returned to St. Peter's. When his growing
fame as a composer prompted Sta. Maria Maggiore to rehire him， St.
Peter's again raised his salary. In acknowledgment of his position
as the most celebrated Roman musician， he was given in 1578 the
title of master of music at the Vatican Basilica.
The series of epidemics that swept through central Italy in the
late 1570s carried off his wife and his two elder sons， both of
whom showed great musical promise. He himself fell seriously ill.
Grieving over his wife's death， he announced his intention of
becoming a priest， to the delight of the pope， Gregory XIII. After
having been made a canon， however， he renounced his vows in order
to marry (1581) Virginia Dormoli， widow of a wealthy merchant.
Although he spent considerable time administering her fortune， he
retained his position at St. Peter's and continued to compose.
Although an attempt in 1585 to make Palestrina musical director of
the Pontifical Choir proved abortive， he was considered by all the
popes under whom he served as the official composer for the choir，
and it is recorded that he marched at the head of the pontifical
singers on the occasion of erecting the great Egyptian obelisk in
the piazza of St. Peter's.
Pope Gregory XIII had commissioned Palestrina and Annibale Zoilo
to restore the plainchant， or plainsong (a traditional liturgical
chant sung in unison)， then in use to a more authentic form. The
task proved too great， and Palestrina's editorial work gave way to
a flow of creative music. Much of it was published during the last
12 years of his life， including volumes of motets (choral
compositions based on sacred texts)， masses， and madrigals. He
also helped to found an association of professional musicians
called the Vertuosa Compagnia dei Musici.
Two years before Palestrina's death， the new pope， Clement VIII，
increased his pension， and the same year， in a singular mark of
respect and admiration， fellow composers paid their elderly senior
the compliment of writing 16 settings of the Vesper Psalms to his
praise. In return， Palestrina sent them a motet on the appropriate
text: Vos amici mei estis "You are my friends， if you do what I
teach， said the Lord."
Music
Palestrina's musical output， though vast， maintained a remarkably
high standard in both sacred and secular works. His 105 masses
embrace many different styles， and the number of voices used
ranges from four to eight. The time-honoured technique of using a
cantus firmus (preexistent melody used in one voice part) as the
tenor is found in such masses as Ecce sacerdos magnus； L'Homme
arme； Ut， re， mi， fa， sol， la； Ave Maria； Tu es Petrus； and Veni
Creator Spiritus. These titles refer to the source of the
particular cantus firmus. Palestrina's mastery of contrapuntal
ingenuity may be appreciated to the fullest extent in some of his
canonic masses (in which one or more voice parts are derived from
another voice part). His ability to ornament and decorate a solemn
plainchant， making it an integral part of the texture and
sometimes almost indistinguishable from the other， freely composed
parts， is evident from some of his masses based on hymn melodies.
(see also Index: "Homme arme， L' "， counterpoint)
By far the greatest number of masses employ what has come to be
known as the parody technique， by which a composer made use either
of his own music or that of others as a starting point for the new
composition. Many other masses derive from musical ideas by
Palestrina's predecessors or contemporaries. Yet another type of
mass is demonstrated by the nine works written for Mantua； in
these the Gloria and Credo sections are so arranged that plainsong
and polyphony alternate throughout. Finally， there is a small but
important group of masses that are in free style， the musical
material being entirely original. Perhaps the best known example
is the Missa brevis for four voices.
Palestrina's motets， of which more than 250 are extant， display
almost as much variety of form and type as do his masses. Most of
them are in some clearly defined form， occasionally reflecting the
shape of the liturgical text， though comparatively few are based
on plainsong. Many of them paraphrase the chant， however， with an
artistry that is every bit as successful as that of the masses. On
the same level as the canonic masses are such motets as Cum ortus
fuerit and Accepit Jesus calicem， the latter apparently a
favourite of the composer's--an assumption justified because he is
depicted holding a copy of it in a portrait now in the Vatican.
His 29 motets based on texts from the Song of Solomon afford
numerous examples of "madrigalisms": the use of suggestive musical
phrases evoking picturesque features， apparent either to the ear
or to the eye， sometimes to both. In the offertories， Palestrina
completely abandons the old cantus firmus technique and writes
music in free style， whereas in the hymns he paraphrases the
traditional melody， usually in the highest voice. In the
Lamentations of Jeremiah he brings effective contrast to bear on
the sections with Hebrew and Latin text， the former being
melismatic (floridly vocalized) in style and the latter simpler
and more solemn. His Magnificats are mainly in four sets of eight，
each set comprising a Magnificat on one of the eight "tones":
alternatim structure is used here as in the Mantua masses.
Although Palestrina's madrigals are generally considered of less
interest than his sacred music， they show as keen a sense for
pictorial and pastoral elements as one finds in any of his
contemporaries. Over and above this， he is to be remembered for
his early exploitation of the narrative sonnet in madrigal form，
notably in Vestiva i colli， which was frequently reprinted and
imitated. His settings of Petrarch's poems also are of an
exceptionally high order.
At the end of the 19th century the view that Palestrina
represented the loftiest peak of Italian polyphony was in some
ways detrimental to his reputation， for it cast his music into
rigid preconceptions. Even more unfortunate was the insistence on
"counterpoint in the style of Palestrina" in the examination
requirements of academies and universities， for such requirements
stultified a style that Palestrina had used with great
flexibility. Generations of fledgling composers were taught to
revere the music of Palestrina as a symbol of all that was pure in
ecclesiastical counterpoint. Indeed， the greater part of his
musical output， and in particular his masses (where his unerring
sense of tonal architecture may be heard at its best)， still
remains worthy of admiration.
Palestrina， unlike Johann Sebastian Bach， did not have to be
rediscovered in the 19th century， though the dissemination of his
achievement was helped by the interest of Romantic composers.
There always was a Palestrinian tradition， mainly because his
music supplied the need for a well-regulated formal system to be
used by the embryonic composer in presenting himself to the
musical world. Strict counterpoint was associated with a technique
acquired in this way. In his day， Palestrina was a senior figure
who， utilizing the dominant style of his time， created works
notable for their spiritual qualities and technical mastery.
(D.W.S.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
Henry Coates， Palestrina (1938， reprinted 1979)， is the standard
English-language study of the life and works of Palestrina and
contains a complete list of works. Jerome Roche， Palestrina
(1971)， is a brief， up-to-date biography useful for new details
about Palestrina's life. Zoe Kendrick Pyne， Giovanni Pierluigi da
Palestrina (1922， reprinted 1970)， in English； and Ethel King，
Palestrina， the Prince of Music (1965)， are also useful. Knud
Jeppesen， The Style of Palestrina and the Dissonance， 2nd ed.
(1946， reissued 1970)， is a specialized but thoroughgoing study of
the technical aspects of the composer's contrapuntal style.
Copyright 1994-1998 Encyclopaedia Britannica
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